Substantial Problems on Industrialization

At the turn of the century, a spirit of reform known as progressivism took hold of many American people. Less a united movement than a loose gathering of casual and improbable alliances, progressivism targeted the massive problems of an urban, industrialized nation. In spite of resistance, progressives were able to redefine government†s role in American life, make a serious run for the White House, and ratify such lasting reforms. In the nightfall of the 1800†³s, many citizens could see that existing efforts to solve the substantial problems of industrialization were failing. The 1880†³s and 1890†³s were filled with lively debates about how to reform society. The ideas of journalists Henry George and Edward Bellamy were among the most popular. In 1879 Henry George had written a book Progress and Poverty in an effort to explain why an advanced civilization seemed to increase rather than eliminate poverty. George proposed to solve this problem by ending taxes on improvements on land, such as housing and cultivation. George proposed just a single tax – on the value of land itself. Such a tax would make a speculation in land less attractive by increasing the cost of holding land without using it. In 1888 newspaper editor Edward Bellamy published a novel called Looking Backward. Incorporated into the novel was the story of a man being hypnotized and waking up in the year 2000. All of the harsh working conditions, social class set backs, and political corruption that existed in 1887 no longer existed. The reason for such a change was that government had nationalized the great trusts and organized industrial management. Socialists, unionists, and city government reformers also had many followers. Progressives realized that the nation†s free enterprise system often could be unfair, but they did not want to lose the high standard of living and personal liberty it had given them, and they deeply feared the violence of revolution. Thus, progressives were faced with the question of how to preserve what was good about the United States while reforming the bad. In order to protect vulnerable citizens, progressives accepted an increased level of government control over areas once considered private, such as housing and healthcare. Florence Kelley became a leader in the search for answers. She soon became a resident in Jane Addams† Hull House in Chicago. Largely through her efforts, in 1893 Illinois passed a law prohibiting child labor, limiting working hours for women, and regulating sweatshop conditions. In 1954 Supreme Court justice Felix Frankfurter said that Florence Kelley â€Å"had probably the largest share in shaping the social history of the United States during the first thirty years of this century. † Driven by the mounting tide of public demand, an inundation of progressive reform programs flowed through local, state, and federal legislatures. Targets for the proposed reforms included politics, society, and the economy. Some reform mayors led movements for city – supported welfare services. Hazen Pingree provided public baths, parks, and, to combat the 1893 depression, a work relief program. â€Å"Golden Rule† Jones opened playgrounds and free kindergartens and built lodging houses for the homeless. â€Å"Nobody has the right to rule anybody else,† he once said. He thought all people would be good if social conditions were good. Progressive governors and state legislators also were active. Governors Robert LaFollette in Wisconsin and Hiram Johnson in California introduced reforms to make government more efficient and responsive to voters. Progressivism appeared at the federal level in labor and industrial relations, in the regulation of business and commerce. By the time Theodore Roosevelt completed his second term in 1909, the government had filed forty – two antitrust actions. The beef trust, Standard Oil, and the American Tobacco Company were either broken up or forced to reorganize. Roosevelt was not antibusiness. He did not wish to destroy trusts he deemed â€Å"good,† or not harmful to the public, he just felt they should be supervised and controlled. The progressive era also gave way to they sixteenth and seventeenth amendments. The sixteenth amendment allowed government to raise more revenue from wealthy people†s income and less from tariffs that hurt the working poor. The seventeenth amendment took the election of senators out of the hands of legislature; voters were thus allowed to play a more direct role in government. By the mid – 1910†³s, progressives could take pride in the many changes they had helped bring about, such as redefining the role of government in business and politics. Some reformers included Henry George, Edward Bellamy, Florence Kelley, and the nation separated as local, state, and federal. The beginning of the war in Europe brought about the end of the progressive era in 1914, by the end of 1916 the reform period of the United States had sputtered out.

Developmental Theory, Moral Development, and Gender and Cultural Influences

Most people are confused about how humans grow, mature, and develop a unique personality. This research paper will discuss the two different theories of Kohlberg and Erikson pertaining to human’s personality, moral development, and their gender and cultural differences.It will further explain the role of each stage of human development in shaping a certain aspect of their behavior, and how it changes over a period of time. Developmental Theory, Moral Development, and Gender and Cultural Influences Human beings start to develop from the time of their birth and will continuously change and develop until they reach the stage of adulthood.There are many theories that attempt to explain how human beings develop their personalities and identities over a period of time. Looking at the different theoretical views in psychology, it can be very confusing and misleading in terms of how an individual matures and develops.However, these theories will further explain and somehow let people understand the whole process of maturation and development of an individual. Two developmental theories will be discussed in this paper, as well as their similarities and differences.The paper also aims to present how these theories affect the development of an individual from birth to adulthood. The theories to be discussed are Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.Erikson's Model of Psychosocial DevelopmentErik Erikson is a developmental psychologist who believes that a person develops their personality in a series of stage and ages. Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson's model of psychosocial development is a very significant, highly regarded, and meaningful thought.Erikson developed the eight stages of psychosocial development of an individual. In each stage, he believes that people experience problems and conflicts in life; thus, it serve s as a turning point in a person’s development throughout his or her life stages. These problems are expected to develop or impede the psychological ability of an individual (Wagner, 2008). The first stage of Erikson’s developmental theory is the Trust vs. Mistrust. This occurs between births and when a child reaches one year old. It is said to be the most fundamental stage in life.It is a stage where a child learns to trust the people around such as the mother or parents who are expected to be there and provide them with their vital needs like care, love, trust and food. Since an infant is absolutely dependent, developing trust is usually based on dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.If a child finally develops trust, he or she will now feel secure living in the world. On the other hand, if trust is not developed in this stage, a child may develop fear and a belief that he or she lives in an unpredictable and conflicting environment (Chelsi, 2006 ). The second stage occurs when a child becomes a toddler.This stage is called Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt. In this stage of development, early childhood is focused on enhancing a greater sense of personal control. For instance, when a child learns to control certain parts of his or her body like toilet training and learning how to walk, then he or she will have a sense of control.This child will feel independent as well and develop a sense of autonomy to do something on his or her own. However, if the child fails to attain personal control, it will result in feelings of shame and doubt (Wolfe, 2007). Stage three of Erikson’s theory is called Initiative vs.  Guilt.This stage happens when a child becomes preschool already between the ages of four and five. In this stage, a child become more active and will play and explore a lot. It is also where a child develops a conscience and begins to understand what is right from wrong.Support is extremely needed in this stage because if it is not present, feelings of guilt can develop and will be the source of conflict later in the child’s life (Wagner, 2008). Fourth stage in this theory is Industry vs. Inferiority. This stage occurs when a child reaches the age of 2-12 years old and when they attend early school.Every child needs to feel that he or she has achieved something in every work he or she does, most especially in school. That is why school is very important in this stage of development. If a child constantly successfully achieves something with the use of his or her own skill or ability, there will be a greater chance that the child will feel proud and confident within him- or herself. On the other hand, if the child fails to achieve something, it may result in feelings of inferiority and low self-esteem in the child’s personality (Wagner, 2008). Identity vs. Confusion makes up the fifth stage of Erikson’s theory.This stage takes place during the adolescence period of an individua l. Adolescents will try to discover their identity and figure out their personality and where they should belong in the world. It is the stage wherein a child begins experimenting since it is a way to discover him- or herself. If the child was not able to discover and know him- or herself, then there will be role and identity confusion in them. Consequently, he or she will be confused with his or her function in the world and can cause dilemma later on in the next stages of life (Chelsi, 2006).The sixth stage of this theory is Intimacy vs. IsolationThis happens during early adulthood between the ages of 18 and 40. It is a stage wherein a person explores personal relationship, specifically intimate relationships with other people. Thus, in this stage, people begin to date and find a partner to marry.Those who are successful will achieve a sense of intimacy and security from their partner or other people, while failure to do so may result in isolation and feeling of loneliness and dep ression (Wagner, 2008). Stage seven occurs at the age of 40 to 65, and it is called Generativity vs. Stagnation. In this stage, an individual continues to build lives but focuses now with career and family.This is where a person learns to care and be concerned for other people. Being active and participative in the world is what people feel if they succeed in this stage. However, having less self-worth is what people would feel if they fail to meet this stage successfully (Wagner, 2008). Lastly, the eighth stage in Erikson’s theory is called integrity vs. despair. This occurs in old age between ages fifty and up. It is a stage where people look back on their life and reflect on what happened.There may be a feeling of satisfaction or regret. They will have a sense of integrity when they feel happy and fulfilled with what happened in their life, while they may feel despair and bitterness if they think that their life was just a waste. Life is full of learning new things and cha llenges that help people grow and develop. This theory of Erikson is truly helpful for understanding a child and adult’s development (Wagner, 2008). The six stages of Erikson’s theory is related to the gender differences of an individual, with the fifth stage (Identity vs.Confusion) being the more crucial.This is because in this stage, it is said that people are try to seek their real personality and identity by choosing where they should belong and knowing their purpose in life (Streitmatter, 1993). Environmental, cultural, and ethnicity factors are present in the whole stage of a person’s development. These factors influence an individual over the period of time when a person matures and lives his or her life. Environment such as the family, school, and the whole society is always involved in the process.In addition, a certain culture and ethnicity of a person may give a great influence as well in shaping an individual’s personality, which makes them a certain persona living and functioning in the world. There may be a culture that is acceptable to the norms of a specific group of people, but then that specific culture may not be common and not acceptable to the other, so it is very important to know also where a person originated so that a person may understand why some people has different beliefs, values, and behavior in life (Child Development, 2006).Kohlberg’s Developmental Model of Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory is quite different from Erikson’s theory. His theory focuses on the moral development. It is divided into three levels with two different stages on each level, which gives a total of six different stages of moral development. Level one is the pre-conventional morality level, and it has two stages. The first stage is the obedience and punishment orientation. It is a stage wherein a child learns what is right and wrong actions and behavior.Children also learn in this stage that for every actio n they make they will gain a certain consequences of it. For example, if a child does something good, then they will be rewarded. On the other hand, if a child does something bad, then they will know that there will be a certain punishment and consequences for their actions. The second stage under pre-conventional level is called individualism and exchange. At this stage, a child learns to be concerned not only for himself or herself but for other people as well.Children start to learn reciprocity and stand in the position of doing something for other people if it is for his or her self-interest. Hence, the child will follow a certain rule if he or she knows that she or he will gain something from it. Children at this stage are very focused and concerned with fairness and equality. The justice here is â€Å"do unto others what as they do unto to you. † Thus, if a person does something good to somebody, then he or she expects that the person will do something good to him or he r as well.The same thing happens if a person does something bad to somebody; he or she then can expect that the person will do something bad to him or her in return (Crain, 1985). Level two is conventional morality, and the third stage is good interpersonal relationships.In this stage, children do something because they already know that it is good, and they will be able to have good relationship with family, classmates, friends, and neighbors. They now know the concepts of trust, care, love, and being concern with other people, giving them a good impression of themselves from other people’s perspective.In this stage, children aim to please people around them, and intentions are basically all good, since they are very concerned with having a good image to portray in the society, and since they are expected to behave in a way that the society asks them to behave. Fourth stage is maintaining the social order. It is still quite related to the third stage, but in this stage, a pe rson become fully concerned not only the people around them but the whole society and environment already.Now in this stage, a person learns about obeying laws and respecting the people and the authority, and they focus on performing a certain duty so that there will be a social order in the society. People at this stage will be knowledgeable about the societal law, and they are automatically expected to abide such laws that are imposed into their society and environment (Crain, 1985). Next is level three, and it is called the post-conventional morality where the last two stages lies ahead. The fifth stage is social contract and individual rights.During this stage, an individual believes and looks into his or her own moral values and principles in life and becomes aware that it should be also good for the society. People develop their own opinions, beliefs, and values in life in this stage.They also understand that codes of conduct are relative to their social group. This varies fro m culture to culture and subgroup to subgroup. A person enters into an agreement with fellow human beings to treat them fairly and nicely and to respect authority when it is equally moral and deserved. Lastly, the sixth stage is called the universal principles.This stage involves the universal ethical principles in an individual’s life. A person uses his or her conscience and their own ethical principles to decide what is right and wrong behavior and actions. Here people are motivated by their conscience that surpasses cultural, religious, or social convention rules (Uncgrad, 2007). Kohlberg’s theory and stages of moral development is said to affect the gender differences, environmental, cultural, and ethnic influences in ways. A research says that gender differences have no effect in the moral judgment of a person.However, they discovered that female are more likely to mature than male in the adolescent stage, making female more advanced when it comes to moral reasoni ng. Research states that girls are generally about two years ahead of boys in cerebral cortical and social-cognitive functioning (Silberman & Snarey, 2007). On the other hand, factors such as the environment, culture, and ethnicity of a person have a great effect also in developing a person’s moral judgment since these are factors that are always present in an individual’s life.For instance, when two different races such as Western people and Asian people are compared, the difference in culture and beliefs is very evident that it is only likely that they will have different moral judgment (Mulder, 1997). Both theories of Kohlberg and Erikson critically discuss and explain how a person builds their personality and moral development in the life span of an individual.Understanding both different stages of Kohlberg and Erikson will also prevent people from having conflicts and dilemmas in facing and dealing with life since people already know the sources and origins of hum an’s personality and moral development. References Chelsi (2006). Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development. Associated Content. Crain, W.C (1985). Chapter Seven: Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Theories of  Development   (pp. 118-136). US: Prentice-Hall. Mulder, B. (1997). Moral Development's Development: Recent Research. Hope College.  Retrieved October 14, 2008 from http://www.hope.edu/academic/psychology/335/webrep/moraldev.html. Quintana, S. M. , et al. (2006). Race, Ethnicity, and Culture in Child Development:  Contemporary Research and Future Directions. Child Development, 77 (5), 1129-1141. Silberman M. A & Snarey J. (2007). Gender differences in moral development  during early adolescence: The contribution of sex-related variations in maturation. Current Psychology, 12 (2), 163-171. Streitmatter, J. (1993). Gender differences in identity development: An examination of  longitudinal data. Adolescence, 28, 55–66. Uncgrad, (2007). Kohlberg's Stages of Development. Associated Content. Retrieved October 14, 2008 from  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/461832/kohlbergs_stages_of_development html?cat=7. Van Wagner, K. (2005). Stages of Psychosocial Development. About.com  Retrieved October 14, 2008 from  http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/psychosocial.htm. Wolfe Good (2007). Erik Homburger Erikson's Grid of Psychosocial Stages of Childhood  Development. Associated Content. Retrieved October 14, 2008 from  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/299357/erik_homburger_eriksons_grid_of_psychosocial.html?cat=58.

“Not My Best Side” U A Fanthorpe Essay

In â€Å"Not My Best Side† U A Fanthorpe challenges the traditional, stereotypical characters in the legend Of St George and the dragon only to replace them with another equally stereotypical set In the poem â€Å"Not my best side† U A Fanthorpe has challenged the orthodox images of the characters in Uccello’s painting of St George and the Dragon. She has successfully manipulated them into modern day caricatures. Through traditional stereotypical views and legends, Uccello has portrayed the fire-breathing dragon as grotesque and beastly. Yet this is the dragon whom a boy no older than a teenager, can tame. The poem contrasts any stereotypical view the reader may have taken and reveals that the dragon is no more innocent than the other characters. In the first sentence of the first stanza, the reader is confronted by a dress conscientious victim of fashion; this is hardly a fire-breathing monster. The dragon criticises all but himself, from the painter Uccello who, â€Å"didn’t give me a chance to pose properly† to the, â€Å"horse with a deformed neck†. Fanthorpe has given such a beast a pitiful personality the painter is described as a, â€Å"poor chap† however this is not an obvious reaction expected from such a beast. The phrases used by the dragon portray how the poem is the inverse of the painting itself. The fact that the angle of the picture was not in his favour has proven to disappoint the dragon deeply but he forgets the fact that he is about to be defeated and overcomes this with an answer; â€Å"I always rise again†. The character is quick to point out such supposed absurdities as, â€Å"what, after all are two feet to a monster?† and how his conqueror travels on a horse, â€Å"with a deformed neck†. His questions convey his unhappiness of being mocked, from his point of view his killers and victims appear to be blind, juvenile or ugly. Not taking things, as seriously as he should, the dragon tends to ask rhetorical questions: â€Å"should my conqueror be so ostentatiously beardless?† and, â€Å"Why should my victim be so unattractive as to be inedible?† The character does not think why they should take him anymore seriously than he is prepared to take them. Two diametrically opposed personalities, one from Uccello’s painting of St George and the Dragon, the other from U A Fanthorpe’s poem of â€Å"Not My Best Side† are never the less the same person. Painted unnaturally white and almost glowing, the young woman in the painting could be described as a symbol of virginity. She would be insulted to be given such a personality to the one in the poem where her casual sexual attitude is most noticeable in the double entendres: â€Å"wearing machinery† and, â€Å"see all his equipment† throughout the stanza. How these phrases are interpreted, is up to the reader. Half way through the second stanza the reader infers that she would have focused her attention on another issue but instead she is now talking of how she would â€Å"enjoy† being eaten by the dragon and assumes that all girls would like the same. Fanthorpe has prescribed to the girl a rather a modern woman’s personality rather than the image of a more biblical girl. Her language and her sentences are modern and appear slightly immature. One would usually associate phrases like, â€Å"And the way he looked at me† with a teenager. One would not assume a religious orthodox figure to be using phrases such as, â€Å"he might have acne, blackheads or even bad breath†. As well as being critical she also insults her hero’s manhood, â€Å"when this boy turns up†. Indeed her declaration† I didn’t much fancy him† shows her first thought that apparently ran through her mind when she was about to be rescued from death by the very same boy. Fanthorpe has created a similarity between the two characters of the dragon and the young woman. Both are far more concerned with their image and what others think of them than the reality of the situation. It could be said that her second stanza creates a less than glamorous image of today’s new woman. St George. The legendary character who is said to be the fearless slayer of the almighty dragon. However in this stanza, St George shatters our illusions as Fanthorpe allows St George to speak for himself. He is boastful about his, â€Å"machinery† and brags how he is educated to a degree in â€Å"Dragon management† and so-called â€Å"Virgin Reclamation†. Even his horse now sounds more like a car as he mentions it has, â€Å"Automatic transmission†. The first five lines of the stanza show how the traditional story has been put into a modern context. They also show how his own stupidity can make a mockery of him. His words, â€Å"Virgin Reclamation† are an example of his arrogance because he hopes to impress by using words longer than two syllables. Also he thinks that killing is a form of â€Å"management.† Such euphemisms and vocabulary choices not only make him look ignorant and boastful but also are not the words that should be coming out of the mouth of a true hero. His, â€Å"custom built spear† makes him sound like a modern day hero, a James Bond, type but as he is only a boy he has a good few years remaining before he takes on the role. By giving St George elaborate twentieth Century technical vocabulary Fanthorpe has escaped from the biblical sense of the picture to a stereotypical and has equalled him to a modern day Essex man. He attention seeking makes him appear snobbish, â€Å"You can’t do better than me†¦I’m qualified and equipped†. The reader would expect that it would be highly discomforting to be rescued by a hero with this bragging persona. Fanthorpe has created a complete inverse of the legendary character. St George’s more chauvinist qualities leak through when he intimidates the woman by asking her how or if she would like to be rescued. He is expecting her to take on the role of Sleeping Beauty waiting for the strong and handsome prince. St George’s expectations are worked when he tells her that she could be, â€Å"endangering job prospects† if she does not wish to cooperate. Here, he has taken on a very sexist attitude, and although it seems as if he would like to save the lives of others, once again he shows his ignorance by telling her, â€Å"What†¦does it matter what You want? You’re in my way†. He is only thinking of himself. Here in the third stanza is the third vision of a selfish personality. Fanthorpe’s modern day caricatures are not complementary! The three characters in this poem hold quite different opinions yet are extremely similar in the way that each character is as different as the other. They do not like being criticised but do not think how their insults to others are even more critical, â€Å"Unattractive as to be inedible.† In each of the stanzas the characters start off with good-natured comments but as they progress to the end of the stanza the points they have made appear ruder and their egotism reveals itself. The last lines all end with a sarcastic comment. All the characters are not too worried about anyone but them self. Over all they are looking after the image of number one, which seems to be the only thing that matters. Fanthorpe’s images of three types have little of the spiritual among them. As I read about thoughts, which are materialistic, vain or lustful, I learn that Fanthorpe seems concerned with showing us not our best sides.

Pension System in China Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6250 words

Pension System in China - Thesis Example According to the research findings, the growth of the pension funds has consistently represented a challenge especially considering the present position of commercial banking. However, there have also been benefits related to expansion and growth of the financial markets, hence leading to efficiency and liquidity. This paper has found out that an effective pension system requires such pre-conditions as sound commercial banking, market stability, effective financial regulations, and commercial systems of insurance. In the perspective of China, the country is present, at an important period with regard to its economic and social transition. The comprehensive reform of China’s social security and pension systems is a critical strategic factor that will assist in realizing a sustainable development in pension plans as well as a harmonious society. However, its current approach to pension system is inadequate in facilitating a realization of the country’s economic developmen t objectives now and for future generation. Presently, China is at an important period with regard to its economic transition. The comprehensive reform of its social security and pension systems is a critical strategic factor that is aimed towards realizing a sustainable development as well as a harmonious society. The common view by policymakers in China is that the current approach to the pension is inadequate in facilitating a realization of the country’s economic development objectives now and in the future. According to these policymakers, a reformed pension system will see urban systems being sustainable, multilayered, protects at the basic level and has broad coverage. However, though the relevant authorities have placed the increasing premium on a more balanced development between urban, and rural areas, households and different regions, the pension system has a per today only contributed to divergence.

Subprime Crisis and Oil Prices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Subprime Crisis and Oil Prices - Essay Example But since interest rates rose and the worth of houses dropped in the last two years in the crisis country, refinancing has become more difficult, leading to more instances of foreclosures and defaults. According to RealtyTrac (2008), about 1.3 million housing properties in the U.S. became subject to foreclosure in 2007, which is about 79 percent higher than in 2006. O Fineman, J & Keoun, B (2008) and Onaran (2008) said that about $435 billion was reportedly lost by several banks and financial institutions. A series of market interventions were attempted to bail out some firms, even presenting a $700-billion proposal to the U.S. Congress this month aimed at stimulating their economy and positively inspire the financial market. Just recently, the U.S. House of Representatives controversially rejected the bill, but leaders said they will revise the proposal. The Associated Press (2007) said the value of U.S. subprime mortgages was estimated at $1.3 trillion as of March 2007. Moreover, about 16 percent of subrpime loans with adjustable rate mortgages were 3 months delinquent or currently in foreclosure proceedings as of October 2007, according to Bernanke (2007). According to Duhigg (2008), the U.S. ... According to Duhigg (2008), the U.S. mortgage market might just be estimated at $12 trillion, about ten percent of which is either delinquent or in the midst of foreclosure. Wilson (2007) and Shostak (2007) said there are three types of speculative borrowing that helped accumulate debt, specifically in the subprime mortgage crisis: first is the "hedge borrower" who intends to pay from other investments; second is the "speculative borrower" who believes that they can have service interest on the loan and even continually roll over the principal into new investments; and third, the "Ponzi borrower" who relies on the appreciation of their assets' values to pay-off their debt or loan. Of course the best way to discuss things is to put the listener or the reader in the shoes of the person experiencing the situation being discussed. Say your neighbor is facing a foreclosure, you'll probably think that it should not concern you. I'd say, think again. According to Greer (2008), if there is a foreclosure in your neighborhood, even if you are not struggling to pay the mortgage in your home, it might still cause trouble to you and your property. He said there is a number of reasons why a person should help his or her neighbor avoid foreclosure while you still can. To put it more bluntly, if you live in a neighborhood that has had many foreclosures, your own property value could be at a standstill or worse, dropped proportionally. Greer (2008) further said that "as foreclosures spike, gang activity and crime accompanies the problem hand in hand." According to studies, every 1 percent increase in foreclosures, there is an associated and accompanied 2.23 percent increase in violent crime and problems. Some examples of the impact of

The Ice Age Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Ice Age - Research Paper Example Big animals were already seeing a decline as a result of loss of food and vegetation. The Ice Age took along with it many varieties of wildflowers that these big animals used to feed on. Even if the planet sees another cycle of Ice Age after the end of global warming, the extinct species of plants and animals are not likely to return. In-depth analysis of the findings of the latest research imparts a need to take effective measures to stop the temperature of the Earth from going up any further because the species of many plants and animals are endangered as a result of the rapid change of climate. Extinction of many species of plants and animals during the decline of the Ice Age provides evidence of the tendency of climate changes to negatively affect the living organisms. The planet Earth has seen Ice Age many thousands of years ago. Many species of plants and animals have become extinct ever since. Different theories attribute the extinction of these species to different factors, but many theories have held human activities like hunting responsible for the extinction of these species. Results of the latest research have identified a range of other factors related to climate that have caused the extinction of these species of plants and animals. This paper discusses some of these researches and their findings to explore the impact of climate change on the tendency of animal and plant species to survive. Woolly mammoths and woolly rhinos were said to feed on forbs and graminoids. A lot of varieties of these wildflowers and herbs flourished in the Arctic as many as 25,000 years ago. A team of researchers from the University of Copenhagen have conducted analysis of the vegetation history of the Arctic ranging over 50 thousand years and found that many plants required for survival by the megafauna started to vanish during the Last Glacial Maximum (Willerslev et al., 2014). To conduct this research, the scientists analyzed the history of vegetation across

Cultural Diversity in the Public Sector Research Paper

Cultural Diversity in the Public Sector - Research Paper Example Not that the phrase ‘culture’ was not clarified, but ambiguities and dissimilar opinions began to turn up. It was in the year 1980, when Rappaport defined culture as â€Å"†¦a part of the distinctive means by which a local population maintains itself in an ecosystem and by which a regional population maintains and coordinates its groups and distributes them over the available land.† (233) Now that we have been provided with a verified characterization of culture, the question that still arises is â€Å"What does culture mean to US?† Everybody might have dissimilar responses, but collectively, the norms and traditions of living which have been passed down by our ancestors form our culture. When studying Sociology we can perceive that the term culture holds grand importance when referring to the society and its nature. Hence, the cultural nature of the society can be understood by studying its relation with the individuals who form it. What is ‘cul tural diversity’ or ‘cultural disparity’? Being an aggregate, it would be difficult for any society to grasp the answer, because when a mass of individuals (dependant/ independent) join together there ought to be a discrepancy in the outlook and beliefs, but if we review the previous expression we can discern that it itself is the answer to the former question. Therefore, culture diversity can be characterized as ‘the state of sheer conflict amongst different (sub) cultures of a civilization on the basis of language, customs, beliefs, ideas, norms and values. Cultural disparity is also known as racial or ethnic disparity. The two basic ingredients which shape a society and its components include the government (which wheels the societal set up and management) and the public sector (which practices the system provided by the regime). Hence, when people belonging to various cultural backgrounds begin holding and practicing their very own cultural ideals and b ecome badly informed of the reciprocal correspondence they have with other people, within the society and the organism of government, cultural diversity is at its dawn and it widens. For this reason, Stephen Tierney has also named this dilemma as ‘Multiculturalism’ or ‘Cultural Pluralism’ as he explains that the common factor which the struggles of this problem have is that ‘they reject earlier models of unitary, homogenous nation-state.’ (17) To understand the validity of cultural diversity in the public sector, we better comprehend the relationship between culture and the public sector, foremost. Culture and the public sector share a reciprocal relationship. This give-and-take relationship works with the mechanism that when a cultural reform or change is brought in the society, the rate of acceptance of change increases whereas when a cultural conflict begins to grow the pace of keenness and deliberateness decreases in the society and an unre st is up heaved in all aspects of the society i.e. economic, political, religious and most importantly institutional. â€Å"Culture is the product of learning, rather than of heredity†, says George Peter Murdock (113). Therefore, the problem of cultural diversity depends majorly on the fact how the society adapts to it and how it demands its solution, as this problem is not only developed by the socio cultural conflict but also due to many other un-proportionate reasons. This may or may not include the institutional environment, social stratification, political set up also the intra-cooperation techniques and many other facets to be laid. Cultural diversity leads a society towards havoc and devastation as it causes extreme unrest in the public sector. Following are the effects and their details, of cultural diver

Should Prostitution Be Legalized Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Should Prostitution Be Legalized - Essay Example In the contemporary society, sex work regulation occurs within a broader cultural shift towards a society that is sexually permissive. However, the liberalization of people’s attitudes towards sexual behaviors that were once considered too deviant behavior is taking place currently. Non-monogamous sex is common in the society that it is becoming an expectation in modern society. Even the people who oppose legalization of prostitution have noted that casual sexual relationships do not carry the sanctions of social morality of the past generation. Despite the liberalization of the society’s attitudes towards commercial sex, prostitution is still highly stigmatized. In a different point of view, sexual commerce qualifies as work in the society. It involves human agency, and it may be potentially empowering for workers. On the other hand, a small minority of sex workers have reported oppression, exploitation, and abuse. Theorists suggest legalization of prostitution will fu rther plunge problems in difficult situations. Currently, the problems faced by the sex works are a life after prostitution. To most them, prostitution is short-term work; it is a job that they are in it to solve their immediate problems and not a long-term solution. Therefore, they see no point in legalizing it since they believe girls are wasting their time in it. In addition to wasting time, it acts as a tool through which infections are spread yet the government is spending much in trying to treat and curb the spread of sexually transmitted infections. Other pundits argue that, prostitution should be viewed in a broader picture and wider perspective. They argue that modern prostitution is conducted without rules, and this is why infections are spreading at a higher rate. They argue that, if commercial sex can be legalized then the government can work with the workers in ensuring they practice proper and safe sex during their work. This means that the rate of infection transmissi on from individual to individuals will undergo reduction. In addition to reducing infection, commercial sex is just like any other work hence its contribution in commerce cannot be underestimated. This field employs several numbers of women and hence contributes to the creation of employment opportunities for women who otherwise would be idling without jobs and sources of income.

Corporate Social Responsibility Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Corporate Social Responsibility - Case Study Example It has been found out that the company should immediately take initiatives to engage in more innovative and benefit reaping CSR activities so as to improve its socially responsible image and ensure its long-term sustainability. Shell Oil Company is the American subsidiary of the multinational oil major company, Royal Dutch Shell. The Royal Dutch Shell is an oil company of Anglo-Dutch origin and is one of the largest oil corporations in the world. The head office of Shell Oil Company is in Houston, Texas. The company along with its share in the equity companies and the consolidated companies is one of the leading oil and natural gas producing businesses in the United States of America. The company is also engaged in the business of natural gas marketing, petrochemical manufacturing, and gasoline marketing. The main products sold by the company include fuels, oils, and oil card services. The company also deals with the production, exploration, and refining of natural oil and petroleum products. For this purpose, the corporate social responsibility initiatives taken up by Shell Company and the main motives of the corporation for adopting these CSR practices are discussed. The outcomes of the CSR activities are evaluated as per the effects of the different internal and external stakeholder groups and a discussion is made on how these activities have shaped up the image and reputation of the company among the global stakeholder groups. The report is concluded by providing suitable recommendations as to how the chosen company can improve the brand reputation by engaging in more innovative CSR initiatives.

Professional Resume and Cover Letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Professional Resume and Cover Letter - Essay Example CH2M HLL is a global leader in consulting, design, design-build, operations, and program management where success of turnkey projects is critical part of organizational success. My skills and professional expertise in office management can be judiciously exploited to accelerate the progress of ongoing projects. I strongly believe that role of leaders, managers and the administrators of the organizations have increasingly become more challenging especially when new strategy and policy decisions are introduced in the organizations. As such, I have often undertaken leadership role to ensure effective feedback through participatory approach and helped solve the problems and workplace conflicts. My professional competencies, experience and my desire to acquire more knowledge would help me to become top performer in your company also. My work experience has involved extensive interaction with major clients and public, thereby equipping me with necessary traits of effective verbal communication techniques. I have attaches resume for your kind perusal. My key strength have been my ability to function under limited direction and worked independently using initiative and good judgment. I can assure you that my personal and professional competencies would add value to your organization. I would appreciate an opportunity to discuss the same with you in person and look forward to meeting you. Strong leadership initiatives in performing liaison work for CEO and proven record for excellent office management. Talent for organizing meetings and ensuring effective coordination with different stakeholders for resolving conflicts and promote communication. Highly efficient in managing confidential information and drafting agendas for important meeting and ensuring smooth conduct of the same. Exceptional organizational skills; Leadership initiative in prioritizing

Language of Robinson Crusoe Essay Example for Free

Language of Robinson Crusoe Essay Daniel Dafoe’s popular novel, originally titled The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who lived Eight and Twenty Years, all alone in an uninhabited Island on the Coast of America, near the Mouth of the Great River of Oroonoque; Having been cast on Shore by Shipwreck, wherein all the Men perished but himself. With an Account how he was at last as strangely deliver’d by Pyrates (iii), like most classics underwent many editions through the years. However nothing but the first edition, which is the basis of this essay, can give us the look and feel of the time as intended to be shown by the author. EARLY MODERN ENGLISH According to Volume 14 of The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes, Early Modern English period marked the expansion of the use of the English language outside England. But since English was spread at various times it has been subjected to different influences and additional variations caused by attempts at etymological spelling (Ward et al ch 15 sec 3 par 1). These were evident in the novel in two aspects of language: grammar and vocabulary (Ward et al ch 15 sec 1 par 1-2). Among the inflectional changes during the early modern English was the dropping of the weak vowel in verbs ending in –ed (Ward et al. ch 15 sec 4 par. 7). Examples of these manifested not only in the title (the word deliver’d) but within the text itself such as call’d, fill’d, encreas’d, and fatigu’d. Spelling also appeared to be phonetically defective (Ward et al. ch 15 sec 3 par. 1) with words like perswasions, lyon, lye, and prophetick. Compounding of words were also used in the novel by examples of free-school, hand-maids, ground-tackle and fellow-slave. However, the change in the verbs as well as the defects in spelling was not applied to the entire novel which makes us consider the reasons for such use. TOWARDS A PURITY IN STYLE Daniel Defoe, in his book An Essay upon Projects, emphasized that it was the responsibility of the society to polish and refine the English tongue and to purge it from all the irregular additions that ignorance and affectation have introduced as befitted the noblest and most comprehensive of all the vulgar languages in the world (8). The spread of the English language was depicted in the novel when Robinson Crusoe teaches his servant Friday the English language. We may notice from an excerpt of their discourse below that although essentially Crusoe and Friday came to communicate effectively with each other, Friday’s English differs much from Crusoe’s parallel to their difference in status and origin: Friday, My Nation beat much, for all that. Master, How beat; if your Nation beat them, how come you to be taken? Friday, They more many than my Nation in the Place where me was; they take one, two, three, and me; my Nation over beat them in the yonder Place, where me no was; there my Nation take one, two, great Thousand. Master, But why did not your Side recover you from the Hands of your Enemies then? Friday, They run one, two, three, and me, and make go in the Canoe; my Nation have no Canoe that time. (Defoe, â€Å"Robinson Crusoe† 254) Much is the same circumstance that brought about the variations and additions to the English language in which Defoe is clamoring for purity (â€Å"An Essay upon Projects† 8). Shoar and Shore. Aside from the defective spelling mentioned earlier is the variation in the spelling (Ward et al. ch 15 sec 3 par. 1). An example if this is the word shore, spelled shore and shoar, in different context of the novel. It may be noted that shoar was only used in the part of Robinson Crusoe’s mishaps. That is to say, from the part of his captivity at Sallee until before his wreck on the island. These mishaps, Crusoe later reflected on, were results of his ignorance in the Providence of God and malcontent thus the use of the spelling shoar. While his solitary life in the island described the learning process he underwent to survive and finally live harmoniously with his surroundings; hence the renewed use of the spelling shore. In this regard, one may interpret that the use of the word was intentional to show the need and difficulty in creating a standard for the English language. viz. and (viz. ). The use of foreign language in novels is quite common throughout the ages. As such, we came to attention on the use of the Latin word viz. Oxford English Dictionary defines viz. as the abbreviation of videlicet which generally means namely or that is to say (1033). Although Defoe used viz. without parenthesis and viz. in parenthesis based on the same definition, its participation in the statement are quite different. The viz. without parenthesis was used in identifying and qualifying statements such as the â€Å"All the rest of that Day I spent in afflicting my self at the dismal Circumstances I was brought to, viz. I had neither Food, House, Clothes, Weapon, or Place to fly to†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (â€Å"Robinson Crusoe† 82). On the other hand, viz. in parenthesis, which appeared in lines like â€Å"This was what I wish’d for; so I took them up, and serv’d them as we serve notorious Thieves in England, (viz. ) Hang’d them in Chains for a Terror to others†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (â€Å"Robinson Crusoe† 138), was used as such in order to explain earlier statement. The use of parenthesis to differentiate the use of the same word in the novel further reflects Defoe’s quest for refinement of the English language as mentioned previously. CONCLUSION Indeed, regardless of the plot of the story which categorized it to fiction, the culture and language of the time is unmistakable. Robinson Crusoe, in its original version, allows us the indulgence to peek and appreciate not only the early modern English language but the period as well. The flexibility of the language then reflected the society of that time as it has always been for any period or era. At the same time, the novel provided additional venue for the author to disseminate his ideas and further his individual attempt towards the transition to the modern English language and insertions to the importance of learning across the spectrum of the society. Such power language has to influence its readers, whether consciously or unconsciously. And the duality that the novel showed made it a favorite among children and adults alike. Fulfilling its objectives to entertain and propagate (however subtle it may be). Works Cited Defoe, Daniel. An Essay Upon Projects. New York: Adamant Media Corporation, 2005. Print. . The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who lived Eight and Twenty Years, all alone in an uninhabited Island on the Coast of America, near the Mouth of the Great River of Oroonoque; Having been cast on Shore by Shipwreck, wherein all the Men perished but himself. With an Account how he was at last as strangely deliver’d by Pyrates. London: printed for W. Taylor, 1719. Print. Oxford English Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print. Ward, Aldolphus William, Sir, et al. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1907-21; New York: Bartleby. com, 2000 (Web) April 1, 2009.

The Relationship Of Text And Music During The Period From The Early Middle Ages Essay Example for Free

The Relationship Of Text And Music During The Period From The Early Middle Ages Essay In the middle ages, the music was both sacred and secular. Its relationship to text can be inferred from the overwhelming evidence of the manuscripts. Right from the middle ages, music never failed to echo the meaning of text. The composers of the middle ages were more likely to see the relation between text and music as one of abstract architecture, grammatical and syntactic structure,and perhaps even of acoustical properties rather than directly one of meaning. The relationship between text and music was not one of measuring, then there was no reason for one kind of music to be appropriate for one kind of text. Since the words and the music were not related in any semantic or emotional way, a monophonic dance-song, a polyphonic spring-song based on it, a song of praise or a lament song may be indistinguishable in musical style. Renaissance describes the development of civilization that marked the transition from mediaval to modern times. The Renaissance composers used their music to communicate with their audiences. there was a set of shared aural expectations between composers and listeners that governed the relationship between text and music. there was a close relationship between music and poetry and music was capable enough to stir the listeners emotions. Inspired by the classical world, Renaissance composers fit words and music together in an increasingly dramatic fashion which is very much evident in the manuscripts of the Renaissance period. In the Baroque era, music was considered to be a divine art. This idea implied that music was not considered on its merits alone, but a path to divinity. music was understood as a general principle of divine creations. Thus music of the Baroque era related to text as an image, an imitation or an anticipation of the heavenly life or the abode of The Omnipresent. At the end of the Baroque era the relationship of the text and music was as meaningful as the relationship of God with mankind.

Overview And Causes Of Pica Disorder Biology Essay

Overview And Causes Of Pica Disorder Biology Essay Pica Disorder is the affliction that causes people to have a sudden urge to consume non-food related items (1). This disorder has baffled scientist for decades, and research has yet to come up with a clear reason or cause (1). Pica disorder can be found in literature as early as Hippocrates, and has been classified by many ancient scholars during the middle ages and Renaissance times (1). Many explorers, missionaries, and colonist have also written accounts about pica disorder in their journeys (1). Many of these early descriptions placed pica disorder as an intense desire to consume non-food related items, and has been described as a cultural phenomenon with no physiological cause(1). The word pica comes from the Latin word Pica pica which is the name of the magpie, a bird that is described to have an erratic appetite (1). Other names include cachexia Africana (named by doctors who took care of the African slaves), citta, mal destomac, and malacia (1). Pica disorder is prevalent among pregnant women and young children because they are the most biological vulnerable, and can also be found in people that are undergoing renal dialysis, have celiac disease, and those who have a red blood cell defect such as sickle cell anemia (1). The disorder can cause many different affects on the body with both positive and negative results (1). Some negative effects include: metal poisoning, damage to internal organs, and some weight gain (1). Positive effects may include: providing important micronutrients that the body lacks (Fe, Ca, or Zn), possible relieving stress on the gestational tract, and preventing harmful pathogens and bacteria from entering the blood stream (1). Several explanations have been provided to explain what causes pica disorder such as: psychological stress, dyspepsia, general hunger, protection against toxins and pathogens, and a side affect of iron deficiency which can cause anemia (1). In medical literature the definition of pica is, the craving and purposive consumption of substances that the consumer does not define as food with symptoms lasting longer then one month. (1). This clarification indicates that pica cannot be classified as the accidental ingestion of dirt or other non-food items, and the individual must voluntary consume the substance (1).The urge for pica can be compared to the addiction of tobacco, drugs, or the consumption of alcoholic beverages (1). The list of pica substances is countless, but a few of the major items include the consumption of: dirt, raw starch (uncooked pasta), ice, paper, chalk, eggshells, coffee grounds, matches, and in extreme cases needles or other sharp pointed items (1). Body Major Forms of Pica Disorder The consumption of dirt, clay, and chalk for the nutritional value that they might contain is called geophagy (1). This practice is prevalent among pregnant women, and in some communities might reach up to 60% of the population (1). The soil can be prepared by baking or frying, and the amount of dirt ingested ranges from 20-40g, and can range from consuming pieces of pottery, or eating beans that have a high concentration of dirt found in them (1). Most of these items include some type of clay in them, which contains a compound called kaolin, which is ingredient found in some anti-diarrhea medications (1). Another alternative to eating soil or clay is found in the consumption of other non-nutritional foods such as raw starch which is known as amylophagy (1). Most of these starches come in the form of raw foods such as uncooked rice, pasta, and starchy rubbers (1). The consumption of these starches ranges from a couple of grams per day to 1kg (1). One other major form of pica disorder can be found in pagophagy which is the consumption of ice (1). Unlike the average person that might suck on an ice cube or two, someone who practices pagophagy consumes several glasses of ice a day (1). Several Hypotheses There are several hypotheses that explain the environmental factors that might cause the onset of pica. These hypotheses can be broken down into three sub-categories: hunger, micronutrient deficiency, and protection against toxin (8). Researchers, however, have found little to no information on the genetic basis or mechanism that is associated with pica disorder. This lack of data is associated with researchers not having acknowledged that pica disorder is prevalent among many populations of the world today, and the belief that pica is just a mental ailment (8). Conducted Research on Anemic properties and Pica Disorder The main hypothesis concerning pica disorder is the association between pica and anemia (1). Some researchers have hypothesized that pica is a symptom which is developed when one becomes anemic (1). In two different studies, pregnant women were tested for several different variables. In the first study, researchers took a group of 823 pregnant women from Turkey and analyzed their relationship between anemia and pica (5). The second study consisted of pregnant women found in Tanzania that were tested to see picas involvement with immunodeficiency diseases (HIV), iron deficiency, soil transmitted helminth infections such as malaria, and the potential danger of infection of parasites (7). The demand for iron in a pregnant woman is much greater then the average human because of the increasing amount of blood cells needed for the mother and the fetus (7). The lack of iron can result in iron-deficiency anemia, abortions, false labors, and multiparity (5). In a worldwide study it was found that 20% of all maternal deaths resulted from anemia, and can also lead to premature births, underdeveloped infants, increased infant fatality, and a decrease in fertility (5). In the study done in Turkey, researchers were able to find that out of the 823 pregnant women studied, 1 out of 10 exhibited pica behavior (5). Most of these women were illiterate and were in a lower social class that resulted in less consumption of animal protein, and the lack of funds to take iron supplements during their pregnancy which resulted in deficient amount of iron, folate, and vitamin B12 during their pregnancy (5). In the study done in Tanzania, researchers found that 82.6% of the women studied had anemia where about 29% ate soil on a regular bases (7). Those that consumed soil were 75% more likely to have severe anemia when compared to those that didnt (7). Women that showed signs of iron deficiency (such as a decrease number of hemoglobin) were also more likely to consume pica substances (7). T here was no correlation between HIV and geophagy, and women that had malaria did not consume soil which could be a result of soil containing traces of iron which makes the conditions of malaria worse (7). The amount of Ascaris lumbricoides (round worm) found in the pregnant women was much higher in those who practiced geophagy (7). Geophagy became more prevalent as the pregnancy progressed (7). This could be the bodys response of supplying more iron to form more hemoglobin (7). Another purposed hypothesis is that when an individual practices in consuming non-food related items this can result in anemia (1). This hypothesis states that the intake of non-nutritional elements does not result in a positive result or a decrease in this deficiency (1). The mechanism behind this phenomenon is found to be caused by tissue enzyme deficiency and this includes Fe and Zn deficiencies which play a role in appetite regulating brain enzymes (1). In one study, three subjects were tested that exhibited different types of pica (4). One subjected consumed at least two super-sized McDonald soda cups filled with ice a day which resulted in heavy bleeding during her menstrual cycle (4). Another subject would drink iced water three to four times a day which resulted in the formation of colonic polyps which caused bleeding (4). The third and final subject would chew on rubber bands with a specific color and diameter (4). All three of the individuals were mentally stable, and had no history of mental ailments (4). After treated with iron supplementation, one subject was able to stop their pica condition while the other two were still undergoing treatment (4). It has been suggested that the reason why individuals that have developed pica eat ice in an abnormal amount is because glossal pain on the tongue can develop because of iron deficiency, and the ice actually soothes the pain (4). It has also been suggested that stress that is formed in the upper gastrointestinal tract (such as heartburn or nausea) brings on the urge of consuming pica elements (1). This is because some pica elements contain high traces of alkaline which can act a suppressor and reduce the gastric pH in the gastrointestinal organs which would reduce the pain induced by heartburn or nausea (1). This however does not take into account for the individual that chewed on rubber bands (4). In another case report, a 22-year old African woman was diagnosed to have severe anemia (6). The woman had complained of immense fatigue, and it was found that she had been consuming a stone that was high in kaolinite and quartz for the past 15 years (5). After removing traces of the stone in her body and providing iron supplements, the woman was able to recover from her sever anemia, and a check up 3 months later showed a satisfactory blood count and stable iron levels (6). A possible reason to why this stone made the woman develop severe anemia is because of the high levels of kaolinite found in the stone (6). Kaolinite is a compound that is able to absorb concentrations of Fe2+ and Fe 3+ in the duodenum, which is where iron is absorbed by the body (6). This could have caused her to develop a deficiency in iron which could have led to her having severe anemia (6). In many cases of pica, iron deficiency or anemic properties are present in the individual (1). There have been positive results that show livestock that have developed iron deficiency and have engaged in pica activity have shown improvement in their iron deficiency (1). However, sodium is the only known nutrient that is craved in humans, and some data shows that most pica substances have little to no iron in them except for soil, which the iron content of is less known although some acid base tests have been taken which resulted in some pica substances containing nutritional elements such as Fe, Zn, Cu, and Ca (1). These tests however do not take into account the pH of the intestine, and the site of these nutritional elements such as Fe (1). Overall this hypothesis is an intriguing one, but does not have any current data that suggests that consuming pica elements actually help elevate iron deficiency or other nutritional deficiencies (1) Pica used as protection against pathogens and toxins A recent hypothesis that has come up in the scientific community is that pica substances are consumed to protect against harmful chemicals and pathogens (1). Clay is shown to exhibit toxin-binding properties, and kaolin (found in some clay) is an active ingredient found in some anti-diarrhea medications (3).These toxins can come from plants, which produce toxins as a protective measure against predators (1). These toxins can cause dizziness, muscle pains, and other unwanted side effects (1). Other chemicals can enter food via bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (1). Viruses and parasites can also enter the body and cause damage (1). In a study done with rats, the rats were injected with a chemotherapy agent (cisplatin), and then given doses of kaolin (3). The rats that were given kaolin showed less acute symptoms then the rats that were injected with cisplatin which exhibited a decrease in appetite, and weight loss (3). Kaolin could have played a role in decre asing the anxiety felt by the rats, and possibly sped up the recovery process (3). The mechanism on how clay and kaolin work on the body is still a mystery, and does not solidify the hypothesis that pica substances play a role in elevating pain from toxins or other chemicals (3). Conclusion Although pica disorder has been known since the time of Hippocrates, it is still a mystery to many researchers (1). The next step to further the knowledge about pica is to take a multidisciplinary approach, and to shift the idea of pica just being a mental ailment to pica also playing a physiological role in individuals (8). It is not fully understood to whether pica plays a role in the onset of anemic properties or if pica is a side effect of anemia (8). There is also the possibility that pica can contribute to the prevention or relief of toxins and pathogens from entering the blood stream (1). Although pica is not fully understood, it still must be taken seriously, as the effects are still not fully understood and could result in many complications that can lead to suffering for individuals that experience pica symptoms (1).

Cancer and the Immune System Essay -- Biology T Cells

Have you ever eaten something without washing your hands or been next to someone who sneezed? If you have then you've been exposed to millions of germs. The world is full of germs (microorganisms) - things like bacteria and viruses which can make us sick - and simple things like breathing and eating are constantly exposing us to them. Sometimes we get sick, but amazingly enough, most of the time we don’t. Our body’s ability to fight off disease is due to the incredible immune system. Several T cells (white) attacking a tumor However, at times something goes wrong with the immune system. Everyone gets sick once in a while, and beyond making us ill, there are still many diseases which can kill people. Cancer is a disease which manages to defeat the immune system. But how? For years cancer immunologists assumed that the cells of the immune system simply couldn’t recognize tumor cells. After all, if they could, cancer would be no more serious than the common cold. The many people who die each year from cancer seem to support the view that the immune system is blind to tumor cells. However, new experimental evidence indicates otherwise. As often happens in science the assumed or most obvious view is not always the correct one. In a study designed to investigate exactly how cancerous cells defeat the immune system, a collaborating group of scientists found some very interesting results. In a Nature Medicine journal article titled â€Å"Characterization of circulating T cells specific for tumor-associat ed antigens in melanoma patients† they discovered a phenomenon we have dubbed Dead Cells Walking. The first problem was to identify anti-melanoma T cells. To do this they first harvested lymphocytes from the peripheral blood of mela... ... be no cure. The fact that specific TAA cells are present in people with metastatic disease opens up a completely new realm for oncologists. Perhaps new cancer therapies will be aimed at reviving the anergic T cells. This would allow physicians to work with the immune system of their patients, and together, maybe the cancer can be defeated. In addition, the study showed that chemotherapy significantly decreased the levels of anti cancer TAA cells. If those cells can somehow be revived, than a standard anti cancer chemotherapy regimen may actually be doing more harm than good. Physicians treat disease with the knowledge they have about how it works. Their treatments then, can only be effective if their knowledge is correct. As a result, studies such as this one, which clarify disease mechanisms, are critical for the continued advancement of the medical profession.

The Greatest War OF All Time :: essays papers

The Greatest War OF All Time W.W.I World War I was the first major war that included a country from almost every part of the world. It was the second bloodiest war second only to W.W.II. The greatest destruction that humankind had ever previously experienced began on a calm and beautiful August day. It was a senseless slaughter that no nation benefited from. It lasted from 1914-1918. America was involved from April of 1917 to November of 1918. It ended with the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on November 11 at 11:11 a.m. in 1918. World War I started because of the assassination of Franz Josef Ferdinan and his wife Sophie while they were in a motorcade in the capitol city of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Franz Ferdinan was next in line for the thrown of Austria-Hungry. Principe, a member of the Black Hand terrorist organization, shot them. Preceding the shot that started the war, tension was created though out Europe when Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II increased the size of his army. The Kaiser had a disturbed childhood. He was born with a bad arm that he couldn't use. Germans valued perfection in humans and it would be kind of hypocritical for the future leader of Germany to speak of perfection and not be perfect himself. His parents put him through hell and back trying to fix his arm. Nothing worked and the constant medical experiments on his body left him messed-up for life. At age 29 Kaiser Wilhelm II became the youngest emperor of Germany. The Kaiser had a personality all to himself. He knew that he had all the power, and he let everyone know about it. The British Royal Navy had long fascinated him, and he wanted one for his own. He got his wish and fulfilled his militaristic dream of having a large and powerful military. The rest of Europe became alarmed at the sudden increase of German military activity. This made every European country look more closely at Germany in fear that they would try to start something. Another source of tension in Europe was the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungry and Russia both wanted to control the disintegrating Ottoman Empire. With all of this tension already in Europe, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinan was all that was needed to spark the start of the war. Serbia firmly denied any compensation to Austria for the death of the Archduke, so Austria declared war on Serbia. The Greatest War OF All Time :: essays papers The Greatest War OF All Time W.W.I World War I was the first major war that included a country from almost every part of the world. It was the second bloodiest war second only to W.W.II. The greatest destruction that humankind had ever previously experienced began on a calm and beautiful August day. It was a senseless slaughter that no nation benefited from. It lasted from 1914-1918. America was involved from April of 1917 to November of 1918. It ended with the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on November 11 at 11:11 a.m. in 1918. World War I started because of the assassination of Franz Josef Ferdinan and his wife Sophie while they were in a motorcade in the capitol city of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Franz Ferdinan was next in line for the thrown of Austria-Hungry. Principe, a member of the Black Hand terrorist organization, shot them. Preceding the shot that started the war, tension was created though out Europe when Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II increased the size of his army. The Kaiser had a disturbed childhood. He was born with a bad arm that he couldn't use. Germans valued perfection in humans and it would be kind of hypocritical for the future leader of Germany to speak of perfection and not be perfect himself. His parents put him through hell and back trying to fix his arm. Nothing worked and the constant medical experiments on his body left him messed-up for life. At age 29 Kaiser Wilhelm II became the youngest emperor of Germany. The Kaiser had a personality all to himself. He knew that he had all the power, and he let everyone know about it. The British Royal Navy had long fascinated him, and he wanted one for his own. He got his wish and fulfilled his militaristic dream of having a large and powerful military. The rest of Europe became alarmed at the sudden increase of German military activity. This made every European country look more closely at Germany in fear that they would try to start something. Another source of tension in Europe was the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungry and Russia both wanted to control the disintegrating Ottoman Empire. With all of this tension already in Europe, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinan was all that was needed to spark the start of the war. Serbia firmly denied any compensation to Austria for the death of the Archduke, so Austria declared war on Serbia.

Serial Killers and Mass Murderers :: Murder Violence Crime Serial Killers Essays

Serial Killers and Mass Murderers Mass Murderers and Serial Killers are nothing new to today’s society. These vicious killers are all violent, brutal monsters and have an abnormal urge to kill. What gives people these urges to kill? What motivates them to keep killing? Do these killers get satisfaction from killing? Is there a difference between mass murderers and serial killers or are they the same. How do they choose their victims and what are some of their characteristics? These questions and many more are reasons why I was eager to write my paper on mass murderers and serial killers. However, the most interesting and sought after questions are the ones that have always been controversial. One example is; what goes on inside the mind of a killer? In this paper I will try to develop a better understanding of these driven killers and their motives. Although mass murderers and serial killers are both dangerous and somewhat sick people, there are several distinct characteristics of each that put them in different categories. The most distinct differences between the two are; Most mass killers kill several victims over a relatively short period of time, usually hours, but sometimes days (Murder 1). Serial killers most often kill his or her victims separately, over a much longer period of time, sometimes lasting several years until the killer is taken into custody by authorities or killed. If a mass killer’s murders are committed in more than just a single location, then they are part of a continuous action (Murder 1). Their victims are usually chosen at random, not just killed at first sight. Their targets may also come in specific groups. More than occasionally, a mass murderer will take his own life after his urge to kill is over. This is possibly because authorities recognize the killer is unstable and are likely to shoot the killer in order to protect themselves. A typical mass murderer uses a semi-automatic weapon and plots his murders to be made in a school, university, or restaurant (murder 1). Serial killers commonly attack a single target at a time one on one. There also tends to be no or very little relation between the person being killed and the killer (murder 1). â€Å"The nature of this drive has been heavily debated, but there is a consensus on some points (Anderson 1).† Many researchers have noted sexual behavior in the murder.

Racial Discrimination in American History Essay

Racial discrimination contaminated the entire nation since its very inception. Racial tensions and problems remained a major dilemma of American history. Stanley M. Elkins’ illustrative work Slavery; A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life illustrated the psychological effect of harsh pattern of slavery. He says that in the South brought into being a typical Negro personality that was commonly known as Sambo. Sambo denotes to a personality prototype that was characterized by childlike behavior. This infantilism (as Mr. Elkins calls it) was a result of absolute negation of individual rights and ultimate powerlessness. He further compares it with Nazi concentration camp, where harsh treatment and absolute powerlessness over every action had reduced the Jews to infantilism. Although American history is littered with example of racial discrimination at the social and governmental level but following example manifests different facets of American racial problem. Louis Hughes (1897) depicted pernicious kind of racial discrimination in his autobiography â€Å"Thirty Years A Slave; From Bondage to Freedom† when wrote that slave whipping was a not only a punitive measure but it was also done a business. He wrote; Whipping was done at these markets, or trader’s yards, all the time. People who lived in the city of Richmond would send their slaves here for punishment. When any one wanted a slave whipped he would send a note to that effect with the servant to the trader. Any petty offense on the part of a slave was sufficient to subject the offender to this brutal treatment. Owners who affected culture and refinement preferred to send a servant to the yard for punishment to inflicting it themselves. (pp 8-9) Dred Scott case (Scott v. Sandford, 60 U. S. (19 How. ) 393 (1856). ) has its peculiar importance in the racial history of America. Scott sued in federal court to be affirmed free. A divided Supreme Court (7/2) ruled out his sue petition as declared that he had not right to sue in federal court because he was not a U. S. citizen. Chief Justice Roger Taney wrote the majority opinion. Taney based his ruling on the actualities that free blacks were not citizens because blacks were often debarred from militia service. Taney and his allied counterparts further based their decision on the assumption that original American social community included only those â€Å"who, at that time [of American independence], were recognized as the people or citizens of a State, whose rights and liberties had been outraged by the English Government; and who declared their independence, and assumed the powers of Government to defend their rights by force of arms. † (Dred vs. Scott. ) Whatever were the legal and constitutional intricacies involved in the decision, this ruling made mockery of the American values of freedom, equality and fraternity. This decision further produced a huge chasm between the white American and Blacks that still exists and haunts the American society more than ever in various sophisticated forms and shapes. Residential segregation is common today as it was in the early days of American society as Blacks reside in underdeveloped and underprivileged ghettos. The sole reason for that is that economically they are not well off to buy a house in some good residential area or at least rent it. Until the first half of the 20th century, many trade unions routinely debarred blacks from membership; segregated schools were common in many cities across America. Within the armed forces, for example, blacks served in segregated units or, in the case of the Navy, were virtually excluded. But optimism grew and struggle for an affirmation action continued. Another important moment came when Supreme Court awarded separate but equal status to Afro-American in Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896). Justice Henry Brown wrote the majority decision: â€Å"That [the Separate Car Act] does not conflict with the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery†¦ is too clear for argument†¦ A statute which implies merely a legal distinction between the white and colored races — a distinction which is founded in the color of the two races, and which must always exist so long as white men are distinguished from the other race by color — has no tendency to destroy the legal equality of the two races†¦ The object of the [Fourteenth A]mendment was undoubtedly to enforce the absolute equality of the two races before the law, but in the nature of things it could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished from political equality, or a commingling of the two races upon terms unsatisfactory to either. † Justice John Harlan manifested great prudence in his dissent note. He wrote; â€Å"Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law†¦ In my opinion, the judgment this day rendered will, in time, prove to be quite as pernicious as the decision made by this tribunal in the Dred Scott case†¦ This did not end the Black plight as Racialism was not only institutional but psychological and it crept into the very intellectual and psychological level of American whites. Sociological patterns i. e. values and traditions, were established in way to nurture hatred for the colored people. Palton (1954) is of the view that American racialism has two major manifestations; employment and housing. He provides a detailed and first hand accounts of this housing discrimination. He depicted how white community outcasts those whites who tried to sell the property to colored people. He elaborated that these white Realtors are not motivated by any altruism but financial gains are the only factors that compels them to sell their property to Black community. He writes; In 1934 the Federal Housing Administration regarded itself as a business organization, and regarded Negro occupancy as harmful from a business point of view. In 1937 it actually published a model race-restrictive covenant. In the words of Mr. Loren Miller, of Los Angeles, one of the most powerful Negro fighters against the covenant, â€Å"the FHA sowed race-restrictive covenants through the country far and wide. † The FHA dropped the model covenant in 1949, and declared it would no longer insure loans in new developments where there were covenants. . . . (Paton, 1954) Parton further asserted in 50s that â€Å"By now I assume that it is an incontrovertible fact that segregation is dying† but subtle forms of discrimination continued. Although state and federal laws hankered after an equal status for colored people but institutional and social practices presented a different scenario i. e. dichotomy of values in idea and real world. Roosevelt (1943) has raised certain fundamental questions about same problem i. e. the ideals for which civil war was fought and the practical attainment of those ideals. In that war we succeeded in establishing our unity. We would be one nation and not two and we said that all the people in our nation should enjoy equal rights and privileges, but in our hearts we never really believed what we said. (Roosevelt, 1943) Same views were depicted by Birmingham Sunday, a song by Richard Farina when four children were murdered in Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham. It says; On Birmingham Sunday the blood ran like wine, And the choirs kept singing of Freedom. (Carawan, 1990) The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a socio-political protest against the policy of racial segregation and discrimination campaign in the public transport service of Montgomery city, Alabama in 1955. It lasted for one whole year starting at December 5, 1955 and ending at Decenmer21, 1956. The sentiments of the Afro-American community were cooled down by a United States Supreme decision that declared segregation in public transport as unconstitutional. The Montgomery Bus Boycott cast deep imprints U. S. history and equipped the Black leadership with an impetus to carry on their civil rights struggle. It had implications that reached far beyond the desegregation of public buses. Luther King established himself as the leader of a national stature. The protest boosted the Civil Rights Movement and created a mass awareness about the struggle of Afro-American community and highlighted their pathos and miseries. It further provided confidence to the Black people that they can win their rights by constant struggle. In the words of King: â€Å"We have gained a new sense of dignity and destiny. We have discovered a new and powerful weapon—non-violent resistance. † Another manifestation of racial discrimination existed in the armed forces. Afro-American community remained a vital part of U. S. Armed forces and participated in every war the United States fought on domestic and/or foreign soil. But it is also a fact that Afro-American soldiers remained a part of segregated units and were tasked to do unskilled donkey work. In the perspective of World War II, President Truman issued an Executive Order 9981, which consented â€Å"equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin. † This pronouncement was great but black servicemen continued to come across profound discrimination. Much like the wider American society, the U. S. armed forces observed plentiful racial incidents in the 1960s. The Camp Lejeune Incident is one of them. Camp Lejeune Marine Corps camp in Central North Carolina and housed about 42,000 military personnel. In late 1960s, 14% of troops stationed at the camp were Afro-American.. On the horrible night of July 20, 1969, racial tension aroused â€Å"when a black marine attempted to cut into a white dancing with a black woman marine†. (U. S. Government Printing Office, December 15, 1969). After one and half hour, a white army personnel entered the club and shouted that he had been attacked by a mob of Afro-American marines. This sparked the whole situation and within next half an hour 15 Black marines injured and one, Corporal Edward E. Blankston, was dead of massive head injuries. Another such incident is The U. S. S. Kitty Hawk Incident. All these incident provides a comprehensive and brief synopsis of racialism in American history but it remains a fact that although there are various individual achievements on the part on black Americans like Christina Rocca and Colin Powell hold important role of Secretary of State; Clarence Thomas held the highest judicial authority but discrimination in many forms is also a central part of the African American experience. Joe R Feagin in his book â€Å"Racist America; Roots, Current Realities And Future Preparations† describes clearly that â€Å"systematic racism is about everyday experience†¦Black American and other people of color often experience the world differently from White Americans†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This is true in every aspect of African-American life. References Alan Paton, â€Å"The Negro In the North,† Collier’s, 29 October 1954, 70–72, 74–75, 77, 79–80. Amending Interstate Commerce Act (Segregation of Passengers), Hearings before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, House of Representatives, 83rd Congress, 2nd Session, May 12–14, 1954. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1954, 39–55. Burns, Stewart. Daybreak of Freedom: The Montgomery Bus Boycott. The University of North Carolina Press. 1997 Carawan. Candie. Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement through its `songs. Bethlehem. 1990. pp. 122-123. Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Inquiry into the Disturbances at Marine Corps Base, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina,. on July 20, 1969 (Washington, D. C. : U. S. Government Printing Office, December 15, 1969), p. 5056. Elkins, Stanley. Slavery; A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life. University of Chicago Press. 1959. Feagin, Joe R. Racist America : roots, current realities, and future reparations. New York : Routledge, 2000. Hughes, Louis. Thirty Years A Slave; From Bondage to Freedom. Milwaukee. South Side Printing Company. 1897. Justice Henry Billings Brown, â€Å"Majority opinion in Plessy v. Ferguson,† Desegregation and the Supreme Court , ed. Benjamin Munn Ziegler (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1958) 50-51.

Eastern Orthodox Essay

I. Origin The Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholicism were branches of the same body—the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church until 1054 AD, which is the date of the first major division and the beginning of â€Å"denominations† in Christianity. The Christian Church divided into two Churches, East and West. Both Churches believe that they are the original Church established by Jesus Christ and the Apostles, and they disapprove each other. The Church in the East added â€Å"orthodox†, which comes from the Greek word â€Å"orthodxia†, to show that they retain the original teachings and traditions. Every Church in the Eastern Orthodox system can trace their roots back to the five early Christianity center—the Roman Church, the Jerusalem Church, Antioch, the Alexandrian Church and the Church of Constantinople. Although all Orthodox Churches recognize the Patriarch of Constantinople as the ecumenical Patriarch and the supreme leader, the Churches are ind ependent of each other in the mutual recognition of state instead of entirely united. Disagreements between the two branches of Christianity—Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholicism—had long existed even before the division, and increased throughout the first millennium. Their disputes include issues pertaining to the nature of the Holy Spirit, the use of icons in worship, and the correct date to celebrate Easter. Also, the Eastern mindset inclined more toward philosophy, mysticism and ideology. They reject rationalism, as they believe that unless God speaks out, humans can not know him through reason. The Western outlook guided more by a practical and legal mentality, a perfect example being the Summa Theologica by St. Thomas which successfully fused Aristotelian philosophy with ideology. The Catholics believe that humans can one day see the true body of the Lord through rationality. With these disputes worsening and the gaps widening, separation was inevitable. The slow process of it was encouraged in 330 AD when Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the city of Byzantium and called in Constantinople. After he died, the Roman empire was divided by his two sons into the Eastern portion, which was ruled from Constantinople, and the Western portion, which was ruled from Rome. The formal split took place in 1045 AD when Pope Leo IX, leader of the Roman Church at the time, excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, leader of the Eastern Church. Cerularius then condemned the Pope in mutual excommunication. Michael Cerularius was the Patriarch of Constantinople from 1043-1058 AD, and played a prominent role in the East-West Schism. In 1045 he wrote a letter to the Pope claiming the title â€Å"ecumenical patriarch† and addressing Pope Leo as â€Å"brother† rather than â€Å"father†. It can be argued that it was this letter that initiated the events which followed. At the time the two primary disputes were Rome’s claim to a universal papal supremacy and the adding of the word filioque to the Nicene Creed. Filioque is a Latin word which means â€Å"and from the Son†. By inserting it to the Nicene Creed during the 6th century, the phrase pertaining to the origin of the Holy Spirit â€Å"who proceeds from the Father† was changed to â€Å"who proceeds from the Father and the Son†. The change was made to emphasize Christ’s divinity, but was strongly objected by the Eastern Christians, as they not only opposed any alteration of anything by the first ecumenical council, but also disagreed with its new meaning. Eastern Christians believe that both the Holy Spirit and the Son have their origin in the Father. During the time of the Crusades beginning in 1095, Rome joined the East in fight against the Turks to defend the Holy Land. But by the end of the Forth Crusade in 1204, all hope for potential reconciliation between the two Churches was over as the hostility between them continued to worsen. The Eastern and Western Churches remain divided and separate until present day. II. Institutional Structure â€Å"The Orthodox Church is evangelical, but not Protestant. It is orthodox, but not Jewish. It is Catholic, but not Roman. It isn’t non-denominational—it is pre-denominational. It has believed, taught, preserved, defended and died for the Faith of the Apostles since the day of Pentecost 2000 years ago.†Ã¢â‚¬â€Steve Robinson The Orthodox Catholic Church is the second largest Christian Church in the world and the religious denomination of the majority of the population in Russia, Greece, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Cyprus. Orthodoxy plays a smaller role in a dozen other countries: Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Canada, China, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and the U. S. It also consists of churches in scattered presence in other countries. The Orthodox Church has an Episcopal organizational structure where consecrated bishops are the chief ecclesiastical officers in each diocese and have the power to ordain priests. The Church believes in the Apostolic Succession, which means that the consecration of its bishops can be traced back to Jesus’ apostles. The Orthodox Church is composed of several self-governing ecclesial bodies, each geographically and nationally distinct but theologically unified. Each self-governing body, often but not always encompassing a nation, is shepherded by a Holy Synod whose duty, among other things, is to preserve and teach the apostolic and patristic traditions and related church practices. III. Basic Belief System In Orthodox history, events that have transformed the external appearance of the Orthodox world—the capture of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem by Arab Muslims; the burning of Kiev by the Mongols; the two sacks of Constantinople; the October Revolution—have never broken the inward continuity of the Orthodox Church. The  greatest characterization of the Orthodox faith is its antiquity, its apparent changelessness, its continuity with the Apostolic Church and that it follows the faith and practices defined by the first seven Ecumenical Councils. For the Orthodox Christians, the doctrine of the Holy Trinity underlies all theology and spirituality. Salvation is personal and underlines particularity, yet also communal and implies sharing; there is a uniqueness and wholeness in the human person, in humanity and in creation. It is also on the doctrine of the Holy Trinity that the councilor and hierarchical structure of the Orthodox Church rests. The mystery of the Trinity is revealed in the supreme act of love, the Incarnation of the divine â€Å"Word that became flesh†, assuming and healing humanity and creation entirely. Participation in the defied humanity of Jesus Christ is the ultimate goal of the Christian life, accomplished through the Holy Spirit. In the seven Sacraments and in the life of the Church, each person is called to theosis or deification, for â€Å"God became human in order that humanity might be divinized†. When expressing these beliefs, the Orthodox look for consistency with Scripture and Tradition, as manifested in the life of the Church and the early Church Fathers, but will search also for new formulations of this tradition. External criteria of truth are lacking; for Orthodox Christians seek the living experience of truth accessible in the communion of Saints. Thus they are reluctant to define matters of faith with too much precision, in the firm conviction that truth is never exhausted. The apophatic or   negative approach safeguards the transcendence of God even while designating His immanence; it also affirms the uniqueness of each person—divine and human—that they may never be reduced to anything less than a mystery. Integral to the long history and tradition of the Orthodox Christian faith are the Icons, which further reflect the divine glory and beauty. The Incarnation of Christ implies that God became fully human and therefore accessible and describable. God is not only understood but, at the Incarnation, is looked upon and seen. An Orthodox Church is, therefore, filled with icons invariably depicting Christ or the Saints of the Church, and an Orthodox Christian kisses and assigns veneration to those depicted by them. Icons are never worshiped, and they are the Christian faith and histories depicted in images and constitute part of the transfigured cosmos. Today people tend to think of the Orthodox Church as a vast, world-wide institution. Yet the concept of universality as expressed in the local community is a fundamental principle of Orthodox doctrine. Each local Eucharist gathering is related on the principle of identity. IV. Morality Eastern Orthodoxy does not differ from the larger Christian principles of moral thought and action in any way, but does offer a unique view on Christianity’s promised redemption. It teaches a doctrine of theosis, or unity with God, which is a kind of deification that is available to all. The Orthodox doctrine of theosis is grounded in several key New Testiment scriptures. In the epistles of Paul, he repeatedly describes the Christian life as life â€Å"in Christ.† In the Gospel of John, Jesus prayed, â€Å"My prayer is not for them alone. I pray also for those who will believe in me through their message, that all of them may be one, be in us so that the world may believe that you have sent me† (John 17:20-21). The idea of this mutual indwelling, God in us and we in God, is a constant theme in John’s Gospel. In the Second Letter of Peter he says, â€Å"Through these he has given us his very great and precious promises, so that through them you may partici pate in the divine nature and escape the corruption in the world caused by evil desires† (2 Peter 1:4) The goal of the Christian life, and its expected outcome, is to partake in the divine nature. This is theosis, or deification, and the idea merits special discussion so that its meaning is not distorted. The hoped-for mystical union between God and human is a true union, but it is a union with God’s energies, not the divine essence. Humans remain fully human and distinct from God. But they become perfected in grace, so that every element of ego and selfishness disappears and they are able to reflect the divine light. Few Christians will experience theosis before the Day of Judgment, but on that day, Christians will be resurrected and glorified by God, clothed in a spiritual body that radiates the divine light. Still, deification begins in the here and now, in the daily lives of ordinary Christians. All Christians are called to follow God’s commandments, and as long as they try to do so, however weak their efforts may be, or however often they may fail, they become in some way deified. Deification begins in repentance, and is nurtured through the normal routines of the Christian life. To become deified, the Christian should go to church, regularly participate in the sacraments, pray to God with honesty and great sincerity, read the Gospels, and follow the commandments. The most important commandments are love of God and neighbor. To love God is to live in and for others, which is why some of the greatest of the Eastern Orthodox saints are remembered for their service to others, such as St. Basil of Caesarea (c. 330-379) caring for the sick, or St. John the Almsgiver (d. 619) caring for the poor. Sincere dedication to following the commandments and living life within the church bears with it the promise of redemption fulfilled in the resurrection of a radiant body and soul. But Christians may look forward to even more than this. The Bible speaks of a new heaven and a new earth (Revelation 21:1) and of the hope that the creation itself will be redeemed (Romans 8:22). In these scriptures, Eastern Orthodoxy sees the promise of a cosmic redemption, in which all of material creation is transfigured. This belief in the redemption as deification rests in the Orthodox interpretation of the doctrine of the Incarnation. By choosing to become human, God became flesh and blood, thereby sanctifying material as well as immaterial creation. Because of this, all of material creation can look forward to its ultimate redemption, in which pain, death, and suffering will cease, along with hostility and enmity, and all of creation will be transfigured. The first fruits of this promise can already be seen as fulfilled in the divine power that works through the holy relics, in the divine presence in the icons, and in the radiant transfigured faces of the hesychasts. V. Worship The life of an Orthodox Christian can be seen as being composed of five cycles. First of all, there is the cycle of life, which embraces the whole life of a man from birth to death, and which consists in liturgical actions which are not repeated, occurring only once in a person’s lifetime. There are Holy Baptism, Holy Chrismation (equivalent to Confirmation in the West) and the Burial Service. In addition, there also belongs in this great cycle the Sacraments or Sacramental Blessings which bestow special grace for a particular office or vocation with the community. These are Holy Matrimony, the Monastic Tonsure and Holy Orders. Another major cycle which involves the entire life of an Orthodox Christian is the daily cycle of prayers and praises offered by the Church, once every twenty-four hours. These services express our remembrance of events which happened at certain hours and contain petitions relevant to these memories. In antiquity the day was considered to begin at sunset and divided according to the following order. Night began at 6 p.m. and was divided into four parts called watches, which means the time of changing guards: Evening (6 p.m. to 9 p.m.), Midnight (9 p.m. to 12 midnight), Cock-crow (12 midnight to 3 a.m.), and Morning (3 a.m. to 6 a.m.). Day began at 6 a.m. and was too divided into four watches (or hours): First Hour (6 a.m. to 9 a.m.), Third Hour (9 a.m. to 12 noon), Sixth Hour (12 noon to 0 3 p.m.), and Ninth Hour (3 p.m. to 6 p.m.).